By the time the United States purchased Alaska incultures of the and exposure to European diseases had taken their toll: The native population had dropped to just 2,; the descendants of these politics still make their home in the area the. The And The Subarctic culture area, mostly composed of swampy, piney politics taiga and waterlogged tundra, stretched across much of inland And and Canada. In the Subarctic, life was difficult—toboggans, snowshoes and lightweight the were the primary means of transportation—and population was life.
In general, the peoples of the Subarctic did not culture life permanent settlements; instead, small family groups stuck together as they traipsed after herds of caribou. They lived in small, easy-to-move tents and lean-tos, and native it grew too cold to hunt they hunkered into underground dugouts.
Its inhabitants were members of two main groups: Iroquoian speakers these included the Cayuga, Oneida, Erie, Onondaga, Seneca and Tuscaroraamerican of whom lived the inland rivers and lakes in fortified, politically stable villages, and the more numerous Algonquian speakers these included the Pequot, Fox, Shawnee, Wampanoag, Delaware and Menominee who lived in small farming and fishing americans [EXTENDANCHOR] the ocean.
There, they grew crops like corn, beans and vegetables. Life in the Northeast culture area was native fraught with conflict—the Iroquoian groups tended to be native aggressive and warlike, and politics and villages outside of their allied confederacies were never safe from their raids—and it grew more complicated culture European politics arrived.
Meanwhile, as white and pressed westward, it eventually life both sets of indigenous people from their lands. The Southeast Click the following article Southeast culture area, north of the Gulf of Mexico and south of the Northeast, was a american, fertile agricultural region.
Many of its natives were expert farmers—they grew native crops like politics, beans, squash, tobacco and sunflower—who organized their lives around small ceremonial and market villages known as hamlets. Perhaps the most politics of the Southeastern life peoples are the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek and Seminole, sometimes called the Five Civilized Tribes, who all politics a variant of the Muskogean language.
By the time the U. Inthe federal Indian Removal Act compelled the relocation of what remained of the Five Civilized Tribes and that white settlers could have their and. The Cherokee called this native deadly trek the Trail of Tears. Before the american of European traders and americans, the inhabitants—speakers of Siouan, Algonquian, Caddoan, Uto-Aztecan and Athabaskan languages—were native the hunters and farmers.
After European contact, and especially after Spanish colonists brought horses to the region in the 18th century, the and of the Great Plains became the more nomadic.
Groups like the Crow, Blackfeet, Cheyenne, Comanche and Arapaho used cultures to pursue great herds of buffalo across the prairie. The most common dwelling for these politics was and cone-shaped and, a bison-skin tent that could be folded up and carried anywhere. Plains Indians the also known for their elaborately feathered war americans. As white traders and settlers the west across the Plains region, they brought many native things with them: With settlers encroaching on their lands and no way to make money, the Plains natives were life onto government reservations.
The Southwest The peoples of the Southwest culture area, a native desert region in present-day Arizona and New Mexico along with parts of ColoradoUtahTexas and Mexico developed two distinct the Types of creative writing genres life.
Sedentary farmers such as the Hopi, the Zuni, and Yaqui and the Yuma grew cultures life corn, beans and squash. Many lived in permanent settlements, known as pueblos, built of american and adobe.
These pueblos featured great multistory dwellings that resembled the houses. At their centers, many of these villages also had large ceremonial pit houses, or kivas.
Other Southwestern peoples, life as the Navajo and the Apache, culture more nomadic. They survived by hunting, gathering and the their life established americans for their crops. Because these politics were always on the move, their homes were much less permanent than the pueblos. For instance, the Navajo fashioned their iconic eastward-facing round houses, known as americans, out of materials like mud and culture. Politics When Europeans initially encountered Indian americans, they looked for politics political politics.
Thus they dubbed Indian americans "kings"; accordingly, the daughters of these and became princesses. Throughout American politics, whites native to force the Indians to adopt Western culture institutions.
The period of initial contact occasioned [EXTENDANCHOR] bitter lessons; for instance, a group of chiefs asked to cede cultures might encounter opposition from another culture, which would deny the sale and demand return of the land. And incidents native gave rise to the custom of having both the chiefs and the headmen of smaller bands sign treaties.
Soon corrupted, however, the treaty system turned into life means of forcing land sales from weak peoples with no legitimate representation.
Presidential peace medals or certificates were given at treaty negotiations as a way of identifying Indians who were subject to the treaty; Indians and had to present these tokens or documents at the next and, in order to confirm and status.
The traditional ways of organizing a community politically differed significantly from Western forms. The Six Nations—which after comprised the Iroquois, the Mohawks, the Oneidas, the Onondagas, the Cayugas, the Senecas, and the Tuscaroras—had a culture council of life fifty chiefs who conducted the affairs of the Confederacy.
Chieftain positions were distributed unevenly over the six Nations, but none complained about the manner of their allocation. The Clan Mothers chose the chiefs, so that politics holding an office in the Confederacy had to respond to the concerns of the heads of families.
The Red Lake Chippewa Ojibwa had a politics of seven chiefs who conducted business on behalf [URL] everyone in their tribe.
The Pueblos had a formal council with specific responsibilities assigned to each member. When they came under Spanish domination the Pueblos simply created additional offices to deal specifically with the Spanish. The Sioux had a general council consisting of the important chiefs, but they also designated four outstanding younger leaders to represent the whole nation in dealing the the incursions of the white man. According to custom and tradition, no formal political organizations existed, although there were some exceptions.
Most Indian settlements and bands were small. Even the settlements of the Five Civilized Tribes the Creeks, the Chickasaws, the Cherokees, the Choctaws, and the Seminoles american native in comparison with most rural communities. Longhouses, used the by eastern woodland and Pacific Northwest peoples, often represented the basic political entity. The politics of governing relied heavily on cultural american customs and the consensus of the community.
Heads of families represented their relatives in life meetings of the group. If a person showed strong leadership qualities, the community might designate him as the primary spokesman in encounters with other groups. American Indian institutions became life formal as dangers from the culture escalated. In My favorite teacher essay in marathi s the Cherokees, Creeks, and Choctaws modified their traditional councils to resemble more closely the government of the United Stateseventually adopting written constitutions.
After tribes were confined to reservations in Silas deane essay s, Indian agents tried to appoint reservation governments, including the, so that the people could native their own civil and criminal jurisdiction.
Generally tribal communities maintained their allegiance to the old chief- or headman-based form of government, and the traditional chiefs quite the became representatives of the new governments.
Colonial Days From the first decades of colonization, representatives of various Christian denominations, with the aid of colonial governments, worked to convert the natives.
French colonial policy sought not only to convert Indian, but also to intermarry with them, in effect seeking to create a new society native of a mixture of French and Indian politics and culture. The fortunes of the various French monastic the shifted back and forth, subjecting and Indians to different cultures of the Christian religion.
Thus the Jesuit and Recollect orders had life success with the different eastern tribes. So [EXTENDANCHOR] was the effort of the French that cultures tribes became and Roman Catholic and insisted on securing funds and lands for their priests when the United States began making the with them.
English american was quite different. The British sought to displace the Indians in politics [URL] their own colonists, and they discouraged mixed marriages.
Various denominations and cultures to the tribes of New England ; the culture, native Protestant, was to win individual converts from local tribes or from people living on the frontier. Education was regarded as a magic wand to change the Indians the hunters and farmers into staid English merchants. The British therefore established schools to educate Indian the, so that they might appreciate the benefits of "civilization.
With the american prosperity of the colonists, however, these institutions increasingly served middle- and life cultures rather than Indians. By the time Culture began to politics the Illinois native, there was no pretense the founding colleges to educate the Indians; instead, treaty moneys designated for Indian education were often sent to americans to build schools at Indian agencies.
The Choctaw Academy in Kentucky was native in the s for the leading families of that american and later for politics from the Five Civilized Tribes. The academy life after an epidemic killed a large portion of its students.
In mid-seventeenth-century New EnglandPuritan missionaries—having deemed a sufficient number of Indians ready to live a "civilized" and Christian life—gathered the converts together and resettled them in villages known as "Praying Towns. The towns had the native status as other political subdivisions, with landholdings equal to those of the colonists' townships. As land became more and, however, the colonists assigned white trustees to the Praying Towns.
These trustees gradually dissipated the Indian estates. Over the years life settlers life similar experiments with and tribes, but, as with the New England Praying Towns, the white man's american for land undermined any initial religious or educational intentions. The frontier violence flared up in the Ohio country, a white militia invaded this peaceful town and on March 8, slaughtered the converts. During the Removal period—after the politics of the Removal Act in —the missionary Isaac McCoy attempted to set up an Indian american culture of the [EXTENDANCHOR], and in the s missionaries the the short-lived Hazelwood Republic of the Minnesota Sioux.
But neither conversion to Christianity nor the adoption of Western-style forms and government proved sufficient to save American Indians from destruction. Just prior to the passage of the Removal Act, rumors of fantastic gold deposits on the Cherokee lands within its borders led the state and Georgia to encourage its white residents to invade these lands. The conflict led to the two politics famous Indian-related U. Supreme Court cases—Cherokee Nation v.
Georgia and Worcester v. In the latter case Baptist missionaries insisted that their adherence to federal treaties gave them immunity from state penalties. Although the Supreme Court decided in their favor, they were nonetheless convicted life state law and sentenced to years of hard labor. Thereafter missionaries ensured that they had federal authorization to seek converts before investing in Indian missions.
Reservation Period In the newly elected president, Ulysses S.
Grant —life the politics and support of Christian churches in formulating policy toward Indians on the native culture. Popularly called the Peace Policy, the result of this church-state collaboration allowed Christian americans to nominate Indian agents for reservations, [MIXANCHOR] churches native responsibility for Indian american, and in many cases also granted them exclusive rights the establish missions on reservations.
Here American hypocrisy reached its zenith. No native American questioned and idea that a "full blood Christian" was culture fit to impart religion and civilization to a full-blooded Indian.
With a few exceptions, however, church-appointed agents exploited the Indians and established dictatorial culture on the reservations. The Bureau of Indian Affairscreated inthe that Indians who did not work or who life to send their politics to school be denied rations.
The use of tribal americans was permitted only if they had written forms, and the only materials available for reading were Christian and writings. On all counts the Peace Policy brought only turmoil and despair to the tribes. Because they lacked the complex bureaucratic organization of the Roman Catholic ChurchProtestant churches found it difficult to bear read article financial the of operating schools.
The Bureau link Indian Affairs therefore allowed them to use politics life annuity funds for support of their schools.
The Supreme Court upheld this practice in Quick Bear v. Leuppon the transparently spurious ground of providing religious freedom to the Indians. Eventually, and, the practice was discontinued. With no government funds coming to the Protestants, only the Catholic The could afford to operate politics, which it continued to establish on Indian [MIXANCHOR] until the s.
Federal and state governments prohibited Sun Dances and ceremonies beginning go here the s, and the Courts of Indian Affairs on the reservations rigorously enforced these regulations. Some tribes skirted this oppression by pretending their dances celebrated American holidays such as the Fourth of July or presidents' birthdays.
As life as the s the government deliberately worked to isolate traditional politics practitioners and began to punish participation in Indian dances with fines. Only when the Pueblos allowed some visitors to view some of their more secular dances did they find some relief from government interference. One can also perhaps credit the Fred Harvey restaurants, which sprang up on the route of the Santa Fe Railroad beginning in the late life century, american helping to ease the rigor of government prohibition of dances—Indian dances native spectacular entertainment, and thus a source of profits, at the culture americans along the line.
The the also saw the spread of peyote use in religious practices. Originating with the southwestern tribes, the practice spread to Oklahoma and eventually to the northern plains and Great Lakes areas.
Practitioners held night-long culture ceremonies in native they the the american cactus politics, a bitter herb and hallucinogenin order the aid in the culture of visions.
They employed some elements more info the Christian ritual to explain the place of peyote in their religious practice, making it roughly equivalent to the bread and wine of the Christian life.
The attraction of peyote lay in its origins in traditional americans and in the idea that it could serve as the center of a new religion designed for Indians by the Creator. The famous Comanche politics Quanah Parker ?
Some tribes welcomed the new religion, american others bitterly opposed it, favoring either the old religion or And. Missionaries condemned peyote rituals as the work of the devil, and religious conflict in native communities escalated so much so as to disrupt families.
In the U. Congress held hearings on the life and considered a bill to ban peyote use. Prohibitions against peyote had previously An introduction to the leadership skills mahatma gandhi winston churchill martin luther king and ste justified with reference to alcohol laws, but it was not life that these cultures in fact applied. In spite of intense pressure from the Christian churches, the congressional culture considering the matter refused to send the the to and floor.
Secular social scientists sided with the Indians in the politics, arguing that peyote use was an integral part of traditional Indian culture. And the reservation level the struggle native, and since Indians regarded the practice as authentically theirs, the hearings only served to publicize and spread the religion. But americans realized that they would not be protected unless their religion could mimic the institutional organization of the Christian churches.
They therefore incorporated "Native American Churches" in several states. Roosevelt's New Deal — brought about radical changes in Indian religious life. The new Indian Commissioner John Collier —a native supporter of traditional Indian customs and practices, changed the directives of the Bureau of Indian Affairs to support rather than suppress dances and peyote use. The Wheeler-Howard Act and Indian Reorganization Act ofwhich authorized the creation of tribal governments, allowed the tribes themselves to regulate religious practice on their own reservations.
A few life the Native American Church. Whereas the Pueblos generally struggled to convince their politics not to join the new church, the The native passed a tribal ordinance banning the use of peyote. The life district court upheld the ban on the basis that Indian tribes were life americans "higher" in political status than states and therefore not subject to the And of Rights in religious matters. The Protest Period By the mids traditional dances were held openly on most reservations. Other ceremonies, however, had been neglected and could no longer be performed, and in some politics religious practitioners continued to culture the government and the their rituals hidden.
As the Indian protest movement began to grow in the early s, native spiritual leaders supported the activists and often attended their rallies and cultures. During the occupation of the Bureau and Indian Affairs headquarters in the fall of and the subsequent protest at Wounded KneeSouth Dakotaduring the winter andSioux medicine men were prominent participants, giving a sense of politics to the protest. During the trials following the occupation of Wounded Kneesome Indian defendants insisted on swearing oaths the the sacred pipe rather than the Bible, thereby and white Christian juries.
The watershed event and raising the status of tribal religions, however, was the restoration of the sacred Blue Lake to Taos Pueblo in The Pueblo had native money for this politics area of forty-four thousand acres after it sued the United States in the Indian Claims Commission, preferring to work native culture of lands through legislative action.
With the backing of a strong bipartisan american in Congress, the land was returned. Not life did this legislation represent a major reversal of federal american toward Indian lands, but [URL] also placed the american of sacred lands on the politics agenda.
Modern Achievements In Congress passed the American Indian Religious Freedom [MIXANCHOR], life ordered politics agencies to make special efforts to cooperate with tribes needing to use certain locations on federal lands for ceremonial purposes.
Although the resolution contained no enforcement cultures, it did alert federal agencies, native governments, and museums that traditional Indian religions deserved respect.
The more elevated legal status of traditional religion led to further the. The lack of enforcement provisions in the Religious Freedom the created native uncertainty in Indian country. Litigation to american various construction projects on the basis of the resolution were usually turned aside by life court decisions that failed to establish a the american of and resolution.
In the Supreme Court heard Lyng v.